The death (or murder?) of Ioannis Metaxas

One of the issues that has acrophobic america successful the past is the mysterious death of Ioannis Metaxas, which galore person linked to the decease of Tsar Boris of Bulgaria 2 years aboriginal (1943, much successful our nonfiction of 25/4/2020).

A fewer months ago, astatine the extremity of 2024, Ioannis Nasioulas published the publication “The Death of Ioannis Metaxas” (PUBLISHERS GREEK FRONTIER). After a thorough survey of British and American archives and galore foreign-language books (in English and German), Mr. Nasioulas concludes that Metaxas died from poison with a dilatory effect connected the body, which was administered by the British during 1 of the meals helium had with them, without him realizing it. Unfortunately, neither the doctors, the starring ones of the time, noticed the reality. The large Austrian doc Hans Eppinger, a confidant of Hitler, who was urgently called to Greece to analyse Metaxas, yet ne'er arrived.

What Eppinger did was the autopsy connected Metaxas’ assemblage erstwhile the Germans had occupied Greece, upon Hitler’s bid and with the statement of the Tsolakoglou government. For chartless reasons, nary autopsy was performed connected Ioannis Metaxas’ assemblage aft his death. The results of the autopsy conducted by Eppinger were handed implicit to Hitler. Today, it is chartless whether they inactive beryllium oregon wherever they are located. If they were not destroyed, they are apt successful the hands of the Americans, British, oregon Russians. There is nary notation of whether immoderate Greek authorities successful the past 80 years has dealt with the substance oregon if they person sought the autopsy report. However, we bash not judge that adjacent those governments that knew astir the contented dealt with it…

(Hans Eppinger, the renowned Austrian doc who performed the autopsy connected Metaxas’ body)

Why did Churchill privation to destruct Metaxas?

In our caller articles, we referred to the astir definite German connection for a truce betwixt Greece and Italy, with territorial gains for Greece successful Northern Epirus and “in exchange” the removal of each the British from our country. The British were alarmed due to the fact that the imaginable beforehand of Greek forces successful Northern Epirus oregon a truce initiated by the Germans would pb Mussolini to nonstop the 850,000 soldiers helium had deployed against Greece to North Africa, against the British (see besides our related nonfiction with the views of General Kosmas). The British Special Operations Executive (SOE) had arsenic its main directive from the extremity of 1940 to hole the crushed for the overthrow of Metaxas, should helium importune connected sending astatine slightest 10 British divisions to Greece, thing that would disrupt the German beforehand southward and solidify Greek gains successful Northern Epirus and cardinal Albania.

On December 14, 1940, the Foreign Office was considering the anticipation of provoking a German onslaught connected Greece to guarantee that our state would not scope a abstracted bid with Italy nether German auspices (F.O. 371/24922, Foreign Office MEMORANDUM, December 14, 1940 and FO. 371/24921, F.O. MINUTES, December 1940). A concealed gathering was held betwixt representatives of the Foreign Office and the SOE to signifier a coup against Metaxas.

Metaxas’ “No” to Churchill

On January 3 and 4, 1941, Metaxas was informed by the Ambassador successful London, Simopoulos, and the Military Attaché successful Berlin that the Germans would unexpectedly invade Greece via Yugoslavia to seizure Thessaloniki. On the aforesaid day, helium wrote successful his Diary: “From the English, abandonment, from the Germans, onslaught – The wintertime threatening – Courage! Courage! Let america autumn similar men… Have we been abandoned? For the involvement of the African run (i.e., the British). What shall we do? – We shall manage! But with what conflict and what sacrifices!” On January 16, 1941, Churchill telegraphed Roosevelt that each Italian absorption successful Libya had been broken, and successful fact, the British had captured 45,000 opponents. Churchill present had the quality to nonstop respective troops to Greece, but helium wanted lone a fewer Australians and New Zealanders (British Commonwealth men) to beryllium sent arsenic a “bait” for the Germans, thing which the British Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East, Wavell, did not want. On January 9, 1941, Metaxas received a connection from Eden to conscionable Wavell successful Athens. On the aforesaid day, helium wrote successful his “Diary”: “Eugenios (Fokas, his idiosyncratic doc and son-in-law) gives maine Sebiol injections. And I consciousness stronger.” On January 11, 1941, Wavell received the assurance from Churchill that “we (the British) are afloat responsible.” On January 12, Metaxas met the British Ambassador successful Athens, Palairet, who conveyed Churchill’s self-interested connection for Wavell to sojourn the front, which Metaxas rejected. That aforesaid evening, Metaxas met with Wavell. On January 14, helium dined with Wavell, Palairet “and others” astatine the Naval Club, portion connected January 15, helium had meal astatine Palairet’s house. We notation these meetings because, arsenic we volition spot later, they whitethorn person been decisive for Metaxas’ life… On January 17, Palairet and Heywood (the caller British Military Attaché to Greece) met again and reiterated the request for the contiguous acceptance of British aid. However, Stalin had vetoed Hitler, with whom helium was allied astatine the clip (early 1941), regarding the Germans’ beforehand into the Balkans, arsenic already announced by the Tass quality bureau connected January 12.

The British insisted connected sending insufficient subject assistance to Macedonia: 48 guns, 32 dense weapons, astir 40 anti-aircraft guns, 24 anti-tank guns, and 65 airy and mean tanks. In a telegram to Churchill, Metaxas wrote, among different things: “Therefore, portion the transportation of this unit to Macedonia would beryllium a provocation that would pb to the contiguous beforehand of the Germans and perchance the Bulgarians against us, the inadequacy of this unit volition marque the nonaccomplishment of our absorption certain… For these reasons, we similar the solutions we suggested during our discussions with General Wavell. To survey and proceed rapidly (Greece) with the indispensable preparations for the transportation of British forces truthful arsenic not to pull the attraction of the Germans, which is besides possible. On the different hand, the transportation of this British unit to Macedonia would lone instrumentality spot if the German forces, crossing the Danube oregon the borders of Dobrudja, entered Bulgaria…” This was besides the past telegram Metaxas sent to Churchill, done Palairet, connected January 18, 1941, astatine 10:30.

How the efforts to overthrow Metaxas failed

The British had been readying to overthrow Metaxas overmuch earlier. In the summertime of 1940, Australian Lieutenant Colonel George Francis Taylor, caput of SO2 (Special Operations 2, formerly Section D), unsuccessfully organized an effort to overthrow Metaxas with a question of Venizelist agents successful Crete. Taylor was a idiosyncratic of implicit spot to Churchill. It is noteworthy that the British files connected Taylor’s activities stay closed to this day. In December 1940, the archetypal enforcement caput of the SOE successful London, Frank Nelson, gave Taylor (code sanction D/H) caller instructions to sojourn the Balkan capitals and Athens again, with the eventual purpose of removing (through a coup oregon different means) Metaxas from power. According to Ioannis Nasioulas, Churchill became Prime Minister of the UK, succeeding Chamberlain, acknowledgment to the enactment of a “secret ellipse of influence,” known confidentially arsenic “The Focus.” The caput of Churchill and Taylor was Sir Robert Waley – Cohen, the manager of a ample British-Dutch lipid company, inactive known today. Taylor archetypal visited Wavell successful Cairo, wherever helium received weapons, explosives, connection devices, and instrumentality indispensable for his operations successful Greece and Yugoslavia, the authorities of which helium besides sought to overthrow.

As mentioned, Stalin, apt unaware of the plans being made, vetoed Hitler’s tendency to onslaught Thessaloniki successful January 1941 with 2 Panzer divisions. According to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Balkans were wrong the Soviet sphere of influence, and Stalin made usage of this proviso astatine a precise hard infinitesimal during the Greco-Italian War by informing Hitler that the Soviets would not screen for the Germans successful lawsuit of an onslaught from the Turks oregon the British from Turkey if they were to motorboat an onslaught connected Thessaloniki. Thus, Taylor did not request to instrumentality immoderate action. However, Churchill’s occupation with the autarkic argumentation of the Greeks remained, and the provocation of a German onslaught present had to beryllium carried retired by immoderate means necessary. His triumph implicit Mussolini successful Libya freed up forces from the Commonwealth service and aircraft. A astonishment landing successful Thessaloniki with the purpose of destroying Romanian lipid fields was operationally feasible, and Hitler was preparing to forestall it. The lone obstacle to specified a British landing successful Thessaloniki, which would undoubtedly provoke the Germans’ introduction into Greece, was Ioannis Metaxas,” writes Ioannis Nasioulas.

(Michael Palairet, the British Ambassador to Greece successful 1940-41)

The unwellness and decease of Ioannis Metaxas

We person already referred to the little unwellness and decease of Ioannis Metaxas successful item successful the nonfiction of April 25, 2020. However, we volition erstwhile again notation the main details of his illness, which archetypal appeared connected January 18 and yet led to his decease astatine 6:20 a.m. connected January 29, 1941. Shortly aft the telegram with the “No” to Churchill, Metaxas near for the Headquarters wherever a Cabinet gathering was expected to instrumentality spot astatine 3:00 p.m. The ministers went to the Headquarters, but the gathering did not instrumentality spot due to the fact that Metaxas began to consciousness unwell and returned location to Kifisia. According to the paper Vradyni connected January 30, 1941, a purulent inflammation of his tonsils was diagnosed. A specializer laryngologist, N. Georgopoulos, was called, and successful practice with Metaxas’ son-in-law, University Professor Eugenios Fokas, it was decided connected January 19 that Metaxas’ tonsils should beryllium removed immediately. However, owed to his property and the strain helium had endured, it was determined that crushing the tonsils would beryllium a much suitable approach…

Metaxas connected the aforesaid time got up from his furniture alone, arbitrarily, and collaborated with King George II, the ministers, and elder subject officials. However, connected the evening of Sunday, January 19, 1941, the countdown for Metaxas began. He remained astatine his location successful Kifisia and did not spell down to Athens for the accustomed nighttime gathering with his ministers. On the greeting of Monday, January 20, helium developed a debased fever. He was precise distressed and called the ministers to his location to springiness them instructions. Doctor Georgopoulos advised him to debar fatigue and prohibited the influx of visitors. At noon connected Tuesday, January 21, Georgopoulos performed a tonsil crushing procedure, which had fantabulous results. Over the adjacent 3 days (January 22, 23, and 24), nary curate visited Metaxas astatine the petition of his family. On Saturday, January 25, meetings were scheduled betwixt Metaxas and the lawman ministers of Public Security and Military Affairs. However, connected the evening of Friday, January 24, Metaxas developed a peculiarly concerning fever. The indispensable aesculapian measures were taken, and the fever subsided. On Saturday, January 25, and Sunday, January 26, Metaxas appeared to recover, and it was decided that connected the greeting of Monday, January 27, helium would permission his house, arsenic the doctors believed helium would beryllium wholly healthy. However, astir 16:00 connected Monday, Metaxas developed a precocious fever and was diagnosed with an infection. His humor abruptly deteriorated owed to absorption. A humor transfusion was imperative, which was performed. “The nighttime was horrific,” wrote “Vradyni.” On Tuesday, January 28, Metaxas’s wellness began to deteriorate rapidly, and helium was holding connected lone acknowledgment to his indomitable constitution. At 1 p.m., a 2nd humor transfusion was performed, and successful the evening of the aforesaid day, a third. Until 8 p.m., Metaxas’s bosom endured. His doctors saw that his extremity was adjacent and informed King George II to marque arrangements for uncovering a caller premier minister.

On the evening of Sunday, January 26, Metaxas’s doctors contacted the distinguished Viennese pathologist Hans Eppinger, a person and doc of Hitler, and asked him to travel urgently to Athens. After proceeding Metaxas’s aesculapian history, helium agreed with the attraction being followed and acceptable disconnected for Belgrade, wherever a Greek level piloted by Charalambos Potamianos was to prime him up. When helium arrived successful Belgrade, Eppinger called the attending doctors connected the nighttime of Tuesday, January 28. They informed him that Metaxas was dying. Eppinger canceled his sojourn to Athens but insisted that the 2nd humor transfusion beryllium carried retired without fail. Metaxas’s doctors had besides contacted different overseas workfellow who lived successful Nunchheim. The region was excessively great, and this doc ne'er came to Athens. On the nighttime of Tuesday, January 28, the manager of “Evangelismos” hospital, N. Lorandos, called a person of his, an English doc from the directors of the British Military Hospital successful Greece, who had a gas-pressure oxygen inhalation device. The usage of this machine, the humor transfusion performed by a antithetic method arsenic suggested by the Englishman, the serum infusion, and the cardiotonic injections administered to Metaxas led to a impermanent betterment successful his condition. Nana Foka (1912–2002), Metaxas’s daughter, said successful an interrogation with Giorgos Leontaritis published successful the paper “Akropolis”: “In the afternoon, they brought an English doctor. I don’t cognize who brought him. A subject infirmary had been acceptable up successful Kefalari. Maybe from there. The English doc brought an oxygen cylinder and stayed beside him. I retrieve that helium was perpetually drunk. At 1 point, helium adjacent stumbled and fell with his oxygen cylinder into the garden! He slept here, connected a sofa adjacent to Metaxas’s bed, and astatine the aforesaid time, you could perceive some the decease rattle of the dying antheral and the snoring of the drunk Englishman.”

At 6 a.m. connected January 29, 1941, Ioannis Metaxas, who had been successful a comatose authorities passim the night, concisely woke up. By his broadside was his adjacent person and collaborator, Konstantinos Maniadakis. To him, Metaxas uttered his past words: “So, determination is nary longer immoderate hope? You understand, Kostas, I bash not attraction for myself. But I person my anticipation successful the Greeks.” A small later, astatine 6:20 a.m., Ioannis Metaxas peacefully took his past breath.

The erstwhile night, helium had received Holy Communion. The aesculapian bulletin connected Metaxas’s decease was arsenic follows: “The President of the Greek Government presented 10 days ago, that is, the erstwhile Saturday, a pharyngeal inflammation which resulted successful a peritonsillar abscess. Despite its timely incision and due postoperative treatment, helium subsequently developed toxemia-related symptoms and complications specified arsenic gastrointestinal hemorrhage and uremia, and helium passed distant contiguous astatine 6:20 a.m. Athens, January 29, 1941. The attending physicians: M. Geroulanos, I. Chrysikos, V. Bensis, G. Karagiannopoulos, M. Georgopoulos, D. Komninos, M. Makkas, N. Lorandos, E. Fokas, G. Oikonomidis, D. Dimitriadis, N. Georgopoulos.” Doctors M. Geroulanos and V. Bensis had been appointed by Eleftherios Venizelos successful 1920 arsenic portion of the squad liable for treating King Alexander, who had fallen sick from a monkey wound and yet died from toxemia.

How were the British progressive successful Metaxas’s death?

From the precise archetypal days pursuing Metaxas’s death, assorted theories emerged implicating different parties. K. Maniadakis blamed the doctors, accusing them of negligence, and confided to adjacent friends that “if we had taken the person to a hospital, adjacent successful 3rd class, helium would surely person survived.” Suspicion was raised implicit an injection administered by the English doc Harveg, who accompanied Air Marshal Henry D’Albiac and had with him a respiratory device. Who authorized Harveg to springiness Metaxas the injection? His adjacent advisor, Ioannis Diakos. If his sanction does not ringing a bell, it was mentioned successful the nonfiction astir the “suicide” (?) of Koryzis. Diakos was a acheronian and enigmatic figure. A journalist, helium published “The Newspaper of the Greeks.” As Metaxas’s closest advisor, helium participated successful each ministerial councils. He clashed with ministers Theodoros Skylakakis (grandfather of the existent minister) and Alexandros Papachelas (grandfather of writer Alexis Papachelas), some of whom resigned and were exiled.

On April 18, 1941, King George II sent Diakos to the location of Metaxas’s successor, Alexandros Koryzis, aft a heated statement betwixt them. Diakos recovered Koryzis’s wife, and unneurotic they went upstairs to wherever the premier curate had locked himself in. As they reached the doorway of Koryzis’s room, they heard 2 consecutive gunshots. Upon entering, they recovered the right-handed Koryzis dead, holding a revolver successful his near (!) hand, with an icon of the Virgin Mary connected his chest…

Ioannis Nasioulas is categorical: Metaxas was poisoned by the British nether Churchill’s orders.

The poisoning was carried retired utilizing the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, which produces a neurotoxic protein, botulinum toxin, causing botulism. This toxin, besides known arsenic “snake venom” owed to its paralytic effect, acted dilatory truthful that the resulting unwellness would not beryllium instantly recognized arsenic poisoning. The poisoning occurred done nutrient oregon portion consumed by Metaxas betwixt January 13-15, 1941, during his meetings with the British, starring to foodborne botulism or, much likely, intestinal toxemia.

According to the attending physicians’ report, “the conducted humor civilization yielded antagonistic results.” However, the civilization was performed aft Metaxas had been administered antibiotics (sulfonamides), which inhibited the maturation of immoderate pathogens successful the blood, preventing the doctors from detecting the poisoning. (Penicillin, which mightiness person saved Metaxas, was not produced industrially until 1943.) Eppinger, implicit the phone, made the close diagnosis: “Sepsis.” The toxin had been absorbed by Metaxas’s body, causing a dilatory death, and was aboriginal expelled done the “purging” of his intestines.

(Ioannis Metaxas with his girl Nana)

Epilogue

It was not lone Metaxas and Koryzis who met a “peculiar” end, but also: William Rhodes Davis, an lipid magnate (1/8/1941), Prince Jean, Duke of Guise and heir to the French throne (25/6/1940), Lord Lothian, the British ambassador to the U.S. (12/12/1940), Admiral François Darlan (24/12/1942), Reinhard Heydrich, Deputy Head of Abwehr (4/6/1942), Władysław Eugeniusz Sikorski, Polish subject person and person (4/7/1943), Tsar Boris of Bulgaria (28/8/1943), Benito Mussolini (28/4/1945), arsenic good arsenic the distinguished doc Hans Eppinger connected 25/9/1946, soon earlier the Nuremberg Trials!

All of these individuals, successful immoderate way, had been targeted by Churchill and his superiors astatine “The Focus.”

Spyridon Paxinos, caput of Athens Security, made the mistake of telling a British diplomat astatine a reception astatine the British embassy successful Cairo successful 1942 that helium knew everything astir Metaxas’ decease and was penning a publication connected the subject—one that would not beryllium astatine each pleasing to the British, arsenic helium emphasized. The adjacent day, helium was arrested by the British arsenic a collaborator of the Germans and imprisoned successful Syria! After the war, helium moved to Pakistan. There, specifically successful Karachi, helium was murdered nether mysterious circumstances by chartless assailants successful October 1958. He ne'er returned to Greece…

Source: Ioannis Nasioulas, The Death of Ioannis Metaxas, Hellenic Pioneer Publications, 2024.
We sincerely convey Mr. Nasioulas for his invaluable assistance.