Heraclius: The Byzantine emperor who crushed the Persians and established Greek as the official language

For much than a 1000 years, the main force of the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines in the East were the Persians.

The last clash betwixt the Byzantines and the Persians took spot during the reign of Emperor Heraclius, specifically betwixt 622 and 628. The eventual triumph of Heraclius fundamentally marked the extremity of the Persian Empire; however, a caller force appeared successful the East: the Arabs, who, present agreed done their communal religion (Islam), began seizing 1 by 1 the provinces of Byzantium.

Today we shall woody with the wars betwixt Byzantines and Persians during the years of Heraclius (622–628). This nonfiction could not person been written without the invaluable assistance of the eminent Byzantinist Mr. Alexios G. K. Savvides, Emeritus Professor of Medieval and Byzantine History astatine the University of the Peloponnese, and his books “The Ecumenical Byzantine State and the Emergence of Islam” and “The Cross and the Sacred Fire”, Herodotos Publications, 2022. We warmly convey present arsenic good Mr. Alexios G. K. Savvides and the steadfast Mr. Dimitrios Stamoulis for their invaluable help.

Heraclius connected the throne – The archetypal difficulties

On November 23, 602, Phocas, until past a centurion, ascended the throne of Byzantium aft a mutiny of the Danubian troops, with the assistance of the Hippodrome factions. The susceptible Emperor Maurice and his sons were slaughtered. Phocas, who remained connected the throne until 610, was 1 of the worst emperors of Byzantium.

The precocious historiographer and Academician Dionysios Zakythinos (1905–1993) writes: “The tyrannical reign of Phocas (23 November 602–3 October 610) dislocated the defence of the state and provoked the astir convulsive interior reactions.”

Theophylact Simocatta, Theophanes, and the writer of The Miracles of Saint Demetrius lamented the anarchy that prevailed.

P. Goubert, successful his enactment Byzance avant l’Islam, vol. I, p. 25, writes that the gyration of 602 “contributed to the miserable nonaccomplishment of the Reconquista and violently enactment an extremity to the imagination of a Byzantine Mediterranean.”

The aforesaid writer provides a precise important view: “The Hegira (the migration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina and the opening of Muslim chronology) would person been a elemental occurrence of immoderate Arab metropolis without significance, and not the opening of a caller era. The twelvemonth 602 explains the twelvemonth 622.”

During the years of Phocas, galore interior revolts took place. The Avars, who attacked Thrace, were appeased with immense subsidies, portion the Persians, nether Khosrow II, occupied galore regions of the empire and reached Chalcedon, connected the Asiatic enactment of the Bosporus, other Constantinople (609).

This dire concern was confronted by the revolt of Heraclius the Elder, a erstwhile wide of Maurice, who had achieved galore successes against the Persians betwixt 572–591. In 608, his nephew Niketas seized Egypt. In 609, Niketas acceptable retired from Carthage with the army, and Heraclius (575–641), lad of Heraclius the Elder, with the fleet, some heading toward Constantinople. They were welcomed enthusiastically wherever they passed. Heraclius arrived archetypal successful the imperial metropolis and, virtually without resistance, seized the throne, putting Phocas to death.

He joined his beloved Eudokia, with whom helium had 2 children. However, successful 612, Eudokia, who suffered from epilepsy, died. Thus Heraclius joined for a 2nd clip his niece Martina, girl of his sister Maria from her archetypal matrimony to Martinus. For this act, Heraclius was sharply condemned astatine the Hippodrome. His member Theodoros mocked him and was imprisoned for a time. Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople, tried to dissuade Heraclius from marrying his niece, but helium remained adamant.

Faced with outer dangers, however, the Patriarch was forced to bless the marriage. Martina was proclaimed Augusta. Heraclius had 9 children with her, 4 of whom died astatine a precise young age. At slightest 2 were calved frail and with disabilities. Heraclius besides had different son, an illegitimate one, from an extramarital narration — John Athalarichos.

Avars, Slavs, and Persians besiege Byzantium

As we mentioned, the concern Heraclius recovered erstwhile helium ascended the throne was dramatic. Theophanes characteristically writes:

“King Heraclius recovered the affairs of the Roman authorities paralyzed. For the Avars had devastated Europe, and the Persians had ravaged each of Asia, capturing the cities and annihilating (destroying) the Roman service successful war.”

Meanwhile, successful the East, the Persians occupied galore Byzantine provinces and cities. On May 5, 614, aft a abbreviated siege, Jerusalem was captured. The sack and looting of the beatified city, and the transportation of the Holy Cross to Ctesiphon, superior of the Sassanids, caused heavy emotion and sorrow passim the empire.

Byzantine Spain suffered successive attacks from the Visigoths, to whom it yet succumbed successful 624. The provinces on the Danube and the remainder of Europe endured unbearable unit from the Avars and Slavs, who had besieged Thessaloniki successful 604. In 614, the federation of the Sclaveni, “a countless multitude,” built woody ships and overran “all Thessaly and the islands astir it, and of Greece, so besides the Cyclades, and Achaia, Epirus, astir of Illyricum, and portion of Asia” (The Miracles of Saint Demetrius: Migne, Patrologia Graeca, vol. 116, col. 1325).

In 617, the Avars besides besieged Constantinople. The concern for the Byzantine Empire was tragic. In 618, Heraclius considered transferring the superior to Carthage successful Africa, but helium was powerfully pressured, particularly by Patriarch Sergius, not to bash so. Thus, the emperor reorganized his forces and, aft “buying” bid from the Avars with costly payments successful golden and hostages, was acceptable to run against the Sassanid Persians.

The battles of Heraclius with the Persians

Amid aggravated nationalist and spiritual fervor, Heraclius himself took bid of his armies. The spiritual ceremonies that preceded his departure gave this run the quality of a crusade. The Latin chronicler of the Crusades, William of Tyre, importantly begins his communicative with the successes of Heraclius.

The emperor, having entrusted the extortion of his underage son, Heraclius Constantine, and the absorption of authorities affairs to Patriarch Sergius and the magister and patrician Bonus (or Bonosus), departed from Constantinople connected Easter Monday, 622 AD (April 5).

Processions had preceded his departure, portion the acheiropoietos (not made by quality hand) icon of the Theotokos accompanied the Byzantine troops. Heraclius was accompanied by the tribunal writer and iambic writer George Pisides.

The Byzantine forces initially precocious into Asia Minor, wherever successful the autumn of 622 the clashes with the Persians began. The larboard of Trebizond was the main proviso basal of the Byzantines. Heraclius’ warfare with the Persians took spot successful 3 phases.

In the archetypal phase, the Persians withdrew from occidental and cardinal Asia Minor. The archetypal large conflict occurred successful Armenia and ended with the decision of the Persian wide Shahrbaraz (Sarvaraz oregon Sarvaros successful Greek) and the reconquest of each Asia Minor (early 623) by the Byzantines.

However, Heraclius was forced to instrumentality hastily to Constantinople to renew, with caller humiliating concessions, bid with the Avars. Soon afterward, however, helium returned to the eastbound campaign, responding to the insulting missive of the Sassanid ruler Khosrow II, who wrote that helium would assistance bid lone if the Byzantines “renounced Christ and worshiped the Sun,” arsenic reported by the Armenian bishop and historiographer Sebeos successful his History of Heraclius.

In the 2nd signifier of the war, Heraclius invaded the Armenian territories and Atropatenian Media (modern-day Azerbaijan). Along with him were different peoples: the Lazi, the Iberians (today’s Georgians), the Abasgians, and the Turkic-speaking Khazars. Many Persian fortresses were captured. Heraclius pursued Khosrow arsenic acold arsenic the metropolis of Ganzaka oregon Ganzak, which helium seized. Next came the metropolis of Thebarmais. Theophanes characteristically writes:

“… and the king, having departed from Gazakon, took Thebarmais and, entering into it, consumed by occurrence the temple of Fire and, having acceptable each the metropolis aflame, destroyed it by fire…”

The temple of Fire (temple of Zoroaster) was burned successful revenge for the demolition of Jerusalem 10 years earlier. During the harsh wintertime of 623–624, Heraclius withdrew to Albania of the Caucasus. The Khazars, owed to the upwind conditions, abandoned Heraclius, who successful 624–625 remained successful Pontus with galore captives and spoils.

At that time, Persians and Avars moved against Constantinople. Previously, it was believed that the 2 peoples acted jointly. It seems, however, from much caller research, that their operations were independent. Shahrbaraz again reached the Bosporus, portion the khagan of the Avars did not grant the bid pact and, astatine the caput of a multitude of Avaro-Slavs and the remnants of the Germanic-speaking Gepids, blockaded the Queen of Cities by onshore and oversea (mid-626). Heraclius, trusting successful the defenders of the City, did not marque the mistake of abandoning his positions successful the East.

The fewer defenders of the City and the heroism of the emperor’s associates—especially that of Patriarch Sergius, who went backmost and distant on the ramparts encouraging the defenders portion holding successful his hands the icon of the Theotokos—forced the Avars and Slavs, whose tiny ships were destroyed by the Byzantine fleet, and besides Shahrbaraz, to wantonness the siege (August 626).

The Paschal Chronicle and the Homily for the First Anniversary of the Siege, composed successful 627 by the cleric Theodoros Synkellos, springiness galore details astir it. Great assistance to the defenders of the City was besides offered by the emperor’s brother, Theodoros, who, aft crushing Sahin, the lawman commandant of the Persians successful northeastern Asia Minor, returned to the Queen of Cities. The alternatively unexpected triumph was attributed to the “Invincible Champion General,” the Theotokos of Blachernae, since the last victorious naval conflict took spot successful the country of the Golden Horn, adjacent the palace of Blachernae, astatine the northeastern borderline of Constantinople; and since then, successful grant of the Virgin Mary, the “Akathist Hymn” has been sung, attributed to Romanos the Melodist, to George Pisides, oregon adjacent to Patriarch Sergius himself.

The Third Phase of the Byzantine–Persian War – The Battle of Nineveh (627) – Dorkon: the Bucephalus of Heraclius

After each these events, Persian ambitions successful the southeastern Mediterranean and the Aegean were brought to an end. It was inactive necessary, however, for northeastern Asia Minor to beryllium cleared of the enemies of Byzantium. This Heraclius accomplished, bringing again nether Byzantine power the regions of Armenia and the Caucasus, with the assistance of the section Christianized tribes and of the Khazars (627). It was present clip to present the last stroke to the Persians.

The decisive conflict took spot adjacent the ruins of past Nineveh, eastbound of the Tigris, adjacent to the plain of Gaugamela, wherever successful antiquity 2 empires had fallen aft tremendous battles: that of the Assyrians to the Babylonians (612 BC) and that of the Achaemenid Persians to Alexander the Great (331 BC).

K. Paparrigopoulos writes:
“… each the chroniclers extol the idiosyncratic bravery of Heraclius, who connected that unforgettable time (12 September 627) proved himself adjacent to the irresistible fury of Alexander the Great…”
Theophanes likewise describes the emperor’s valor, whose horse, Dorkon, similar different Bucephalus, led him successful triumph among the force ranks. Heraclius had different trait successful communal with Alexander: helium placed himself astatine the caput of his troops and fought successful person.

Let america spot what Theophanes writes:

“… And our ruler entered the beforehand enactment and began to combat with the person of the Persians (the wide Razates), whom helium defeated with the assistance of the Theotokos. Another (Persian), who past attacked him, managed to onslaught him connected the lips, from which humor began to travel from the wound, but the emperor killed him. Then the dependable of trumpets was heard, and a fierce conflict began, which soon dispersed connected some sides. The emperor’s horse, Dorkon, was wounded successful the thigh by a Persian ft soldier, but the cataphract armor helium wore prevented the force blows from injuring him (Dorkon) successful the face…”

Razates and different salient Persian officers were killed successful the Battle of Nineveh. This was followed by the seizure of the 2 astir important cities of the Persian kingdom: Dastagird and the capital, Ctesiphon (628). Khosrow II was assassinated. His lad and successor, Kavadh II – Siroes, with the “everlasting peace,” arsenic Theophanes calls it, returned to Byzantium Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Cyrenaica/Tripolitania (modern Libya). The Byzantine–Persian borders reverted to those of the clip of Maurice (591), portion Siroes promised to respect the Christians surviving wrong his realm. It was the last clash betwixt the Greco-Roman and the Persian (Iranian) worlds.

The Byzantinist L. Bréhier, who belonged to those who regarded Byzantium arsenic the continuation of the Roman state, characterized Heraclius arsenic the top wide of the Roman Empire since the clip of Trajan (Roman emperor, 98–117).

The Celebrations of Victory

With the triumphant triumph proclamation of 628, Byzantium was informed of the decision of its large enemy, arsenic the Paschal Chronicle describes:

“… Let each Christians praise with hymns of joyousness the beatified sanction of the 1 and lone God… for the arrogant, impious, and God-fighting Khosrow has fallen, and his lifeless corpse has been hurled into the depths of the earth, and everlastingly extinguished is the representation of him who dared and had the insolence to utter boastful words and not respect the greatness of Our Lord Jesus Christ…”

Theophanes, successful his Chronographia, describes the triumphant reception of Heraclius successful the Queen of Cities:
“… When the inhabitants of the City learned of his arrival, they received him unneurotic with the Patriarch (Sergius) and his lad Constantine (the aboriginal Heraclius II) with festive torches, with branches of olive, and with tears of joyousness successful their eyes… giving acknowledgment to the Almighty with hymns of praise…”

On March 21, 630, Heraclius restored and acceptable up for nationalist veneration the Holy Cross successful Jerusalem.
“The emperor restored the Cross successful its spot (in the crypt of the Holy Sepulchre) and returned each the beatified religion vessels (which the Persians had seized successful 614), portion besides distributing gifts to the clergy and to the radical of the city,” writes the Armenian Sebeos successful his History of Heraclius.

Heraclius’ panegyrist, George Pisides, went truthful acold as, successful verses addressed to Plutarch (the Boeotian writer of the Parallel Lives), to stress that his emperor embodied the glory of each the large figures of past Greece and Rome.

Epilogue

Apart from his subject achievements, Heraclius established the instauration of the themes (administrative districts of the empire), strengthened the nationalist treasury, and sought—achieving it to a large extent—to beforehand spiritual unity. He besides established Greek arsenic the authoritative connection of the state, replacing the Imperator Caesar Augustus with Basileus successful authoritative documents, inscriptions, and coinage.

However, the disastrous play of Phocas and the underestimation of Muhammad and the caller religion, combined with a bid of Byzantine defeats, soon led to the nonaccomplishment of galore provinces and the dominance of Islam successful them—leaving the great, valiant warrior-emperor successful slump and with declining carnal wellness until the extremity of his life, successful 641…

Sources:

• Alexios G. K. Savvides, “The Ecumenical Byzantine State and the Emergence of Islam”, Estia Publications, 1990.
• Alexios G. C. Savvides, “The Cross and the Sacred Fire”, Herodotos Publications, 2022.
• Dionysios A. Zakythinos, “Byzantine History 324–1071”, Third Edition, 2015, Dodoni Publications.

We erstwhile again warmly convey the eminent Byzantinist Mr. Alexios G. K. Savvides and the steadfast Mr. Dimitrios Stamoulis for their invaluable assistance.