Today marks 205 years since the time that, according to tradition, the 1821 Revolution began, which led to the founding of the archetypal autarkic Greek authorities successful 1830. As we besides wrote successful an nonfiction connected our blog, connected 20/03/2026, the constitution of March 25th arsenic a nationalist vacation was made by Otto connected March 15, 1838, and 10 days later, connected March 25, 1838, this time was celebrated for the archetypal clip arsenic a nationalist day with splendor, dances, and festivities.
As is present mostly acknowledged, the fable of the proclamation of the Revolution astatine Agia Lavra connected March 25, 1821, is lone a legend. In fact, Spyridon Trikoupis, who participated successful the Struggle, writes successful the History of the Greek Revolution: “…the thought prevailing successful Greece that the emblem of the Greek Revolution was archetypal raised astatine the Monastery of Agia Lavra is false.” Moreover, Paleon Patron Germanos writes successful his Memoirs that earlier March 16, 1821, helium near Agia Lavra for Nezera. From there, helium departed for Patras connected March 23. He was successful the Achaean superior connected March 25, 1821. And since we mentioned Paleon Patron Germanos, we should concisely enactment the relation of the Church and the clergy during the years of Ottoman regularisation and astatine the opening of the Revolution. We omitted this successful the March 20 blog post, and immoderate readers rightly pointed it out.
(“The Greek Boy”, coating by Alexandre‑Marie Colin, 1829–1830)
The Patriarchs and the Ordinary Clergy
The berat, an imperial decree by which Sultan Mehmed II granted the Patriarch Gennadius Scholarius the archetypal large privileges, resulted successful the instauration of an full administrative work for the functioning of the Patriarchate. The reigning Patriarch was the ultimate head of churches and monasteries, could ordain and depose bishops, and besides had judicial and administrative rights implicit the laity, implicit authorization successful matters concerning marriages, resolved civilian disputes referred to him, could enforce taxes successful favour of the Church—not lone connected the clergy but besides connected the laity—and support guards. Based connected Mehmed’s decree, the Church had the close to clasp and negociate its aged estates, which remained untaxed. These rights were exercised by the section bishops, who acted arsenic section governors of the Patriarch. With the comparative state the Church enjoyed from the Ottomans, the bishoprics created inviolable sanctuaries, wherever nationalist forces could make and beryllium maintained.
The spiritual renaissance of subjugated Hellenism was mostly carried retired by the clergy. They were the astir educated and, during the darkest periods of Ottoman rule, the lone ones with education. Living among the communal people, the clergy, differing lone successful attire, were the connecting nexus betwixt the Church and the people. The Church, wherever a learned clergyman from the fashionable classes could emergence to the episcopal oregon adjacent Patriarchal throne, operated acold much democratically than the dimogerontia, which was confined by hereditary rights, wealth, and governmental influence. Finally, the monasteries, inviolable by the Turks, became refuges for galore persecuted individuals and places of survey for others.
(The decease of the Zakynthian combatant Spyros Dagliostros)
With the outbreak of the Revolution, high-ranking clergy were hanged, similar Patriarch Gregory V, oregon massacred by the Turks. After Gregory, the Bishop of Myrioupolis, implicit 100 years old, was hanged, on with others specified arsenic the Bishops of Derkoi, Adrianople, Tyrnavos, and Thessaloniki.
And due to the fact that assorted things person been written astir Patriarch Gregory V, it should beryllium noted that erstwhile the anti-Greek Metternich learned of his hanging, helium remarked: “The Porte interprets arsenic spot what is simply a premeditated enactment of terror.” The Emperor of Austria, Francis, expressed his grief implicit the Patriarch’s hanging and said it had the aforesaid value arsenic if it were against the Pope. Cypriot hierarchs besides paid a dense humor price: Metropolitan Kyprianos was hanged, portion 3 others—the bishops of Paphos, Kiti, and Kyrenia—were beheaded. In Adrianople, erstwhile Ecumenical Patriarch Cyril was hanged, portion the Turks’ rage was specified that they slaughtered Greeks for nary reason. As Dionysios Kokkinos notes, successful Kos, astatine slightest 1 100 “good islanders” were massacred, portion the remainder fled to the mountains successful terror. These individuals had not adjacent heard of the Filiki Eteria and did not cognize what was happening successful the Peloponnese. For Turks contiguous to speech astir massacres successful Tripolitsa and elsewhere 200 years ago, portion their ancestors built pyramids with Greek heads and ears, is astatine slightest provocative.
(“The Hanging of Gregory V”, coating by Fouraux)
The Battle of Dervenakia (July 1822)
Among the galore important events of the Revolution, we person chosen to absorption connected three: the Battle of Dervenakia, which secured the Revolution successful the Peloponnese and definitively established Kolokotronis arsenic the unquestionable subject person of the Struggle; the Exodus of Messolonghi, owed to the greatness of the besieged and its beardown interaction connected European nationalist opinion; and finally, the Battle of Navarino, which undoubtedly played an important relation successful the last result of the Revolution. We person covered the Battle of Dervenakia extensively successful our nonfiction of 26/03/2017. Today, we volition concisely notation it and the value of the Greek victory.
With the nonaccomplishment of Omer Vrioni to transverse the Isthmus and articulation the besieged Turks successful Tripolitsa successful the summertime of 1821, the Sultan assigned the highly susceptible and highly unsafe Hurshid, who had suppressed Ali Pasha’s uprising successful Ioannina and sent his caput arsenic a acquisition to the Porte, to signifier a run to reconquer the Peloponnese. What followed is disputed.
(Hurshid Pasha)
One mentation is that Hurshid had fallen retired of favor, arsenic immoderate who envied him dispersed that helium embezzled a ample portion of Ali Pasha’s treasures (of the 500,000 grosi estimated by the Sultan, Hurshid delivered lone 40,000 grosi), and the bid was yet fixed to Mahmut Pasha (or Dramali, calved successful Drama successful 1780). According to different version, Hurshid had risen successful the Sultan’s esteem and personally assigned Dramali, during a gathering adjacent the Spercheios, to pb the run successful the Peloponnese.
(Dramali)
Who was Dramali? He was calved successful Drama astir 1780. He had participated successful operations successful the Balkans and elsewhere. He was favored by Sultan Mahmud II’s mother, who exercised large power implicit her lad and the past Grand Vizier Halet. Thus, helium rapidly attained the fertile of serasker (commander-in-chief). He besides had immoderate aboriginal successes against the Greeks successful confederate Thessaly, Agrafa, Aspropotamos (Acheloos), Patrajtik (Ypati oregon Neai Patrai), and elsewhere.
His service consisted of 25,000–30,000 men, including cavalrymen and servants. Spyridon Trikoupis, who had accusation from the Turkish serviceman Cherhatzi Ali Pasha, who was with Dramali and captured successful Nafplio, reports that the expedition numbered much than 30,000. Of these, 24,000 were fighters, three-quarters of whom were mounted. Most were Albanians.
(The Battle of Dervenakia)
Dramali’s service reached Thebes connected July 1, 1822, which they destroyed. Its residents had fled. Athenians feared helium would determination toward their city, but Mahmut Pasha alternatively headed to the Isthmus. The 600 Greeks who had blocked the passes of Geraneia successful Megarida, led by Rigas Palamidis and G. Sekeris, fled successful terror. On July 6, Dramali captured Acrocorinth, wherever Iakovos (Achilleas) Theodoridis had been appointed politician successful May. According to S. Trikoupis, helium abandoned his station “shamefully,” aft ordering the execution of the captive Kiamil Bey. Theodoridis, who had risen from deacon to Brigadier (!) was stigmatized for this unacceptable enactment and committed termination soon afterward successful Kranidi…
(“Greek fighters astatine Acrocorinth”, coating by Carl Wilhelm von Heideck)
Dramali joined Kiamil’s widow to due the immense treasures. On July 3, aft capturing Argos, helium prepared to determination into cardinal Peloponnese. Kolokotronis hurried from Patras to Tripolitsa and organized the defense, thwarting the Turkish plans. In a gathering astatine Achladokampos, it was decided: a) to inhabit strategical positions to isolate Dramali successful Argolida, b) to seizure the fortress of Argos to prosecute the force for a agelong time, and c) to exhaust the Turks and chopped them disconnected from proviso centers.
Dramali tried to seizure the fortress of Argos until July 23, erstwhile the besieged managed to escape. This hold allowed the Greeks to signifier defenses elsewhere, portion the Turks attempted to trap the Greeks successful different locations with deceptive moves. Kolokotronis, suspecting Dramali’s maneuvers, occupied the strategical positions to artifact the enemy’s advance.
(Lodovico Lipparini, “Greece connected the way to independence”)
On July 26, 1822, astatine Dervenakia, wherever astir of the Turkish service had gathered, Dramali’s men suffered a full defeat. The aforesaid day, the wide of Albanians and Turks moving toward Agios Sostis was annihilated. Nikitaras and Antonis Kolokotronis (cousin oregon uncle of Theodoros Kolokotronis) played a starring relation successful the rout of the Turco-Albanians. On July 27, Dramali suffered different decision astatine Agionori. Dramali was yet trapped successful Corinth, wherever helium died of grief oregon typhus successful October oregon November 1822. The decision of Dramali and the dense losses (2,500–3,000 killed astatine Dervenakia, though some, similar A. Frantzis, notation 8,000 and astatine slightest 600 astatine Agionori) greatly encouraged the Greeks, consolidated the Revolution successful the Peloponnese, and elevated Theodoros Kolokotronis arsenic a starring fig of the Struggle. Dramali made galore tactical errors, but the Sultan’s top mistake was not sending Hurshid to the Peloponnese. The susceptible Pasha fell retired of favour and was ordered to beryllium beheaded by imperial decree. Hurshid took his ain beingness with poison successful Larissa, wherever helium was buried adjacent the Peneios. However, 3 days later, the executioner who was to transportation retired the Sultan’s bid arrived successful Larissa. Hurshid’s sedate was exhumed, and the executioner chopped disconnected his caput and transported it to Constantinople.
The Exodus of Messolonghi (April 1826)
One of the astir glorious events of the Revolution was the Exodus of Messolonghi. On April 15, 1825, 30,000 Turkish fighters, led by Kütahı Mehmed Reşit, arrived and camped successful beforehand of Messolonghi, portion wrong determination were astir 4,000 men (of whom 1,000 were elderly) and 12,000 women and children. The details of this 2nd siege of Messolonghi became known done the Swiss Mayer’s newspaper, which was published regularly until February 20, 1826, 5 days earlier the Exodus. The circulation of the Greek Chronicles was interrupted erstwhile a hostile weaponry destroyed their printing press, and each the worldly was moved to the ramparts.
Shortly earlier opening the bombardment of the city, Kütahı projected done negotiations the surrender of the city. After the Turkish proposals were rejected, Messolonghi was blockaded by onshore and by oversea by the fleets of Hosref and Yusuf Pasha; the second adjacent managed to penetrate the lagoon. The besiegers began assaults, but the defenders successfully repelled them, repairing the ramparts and making repeated sorties. On June 3, the fleet’s spot accrued with the accomplishment of 40 Greek ships nether the bid of Miaoulis and Sachtouris. For a abbreviated time, during which the naval blockade was temporarily lifted, the Greek fleet pursued the Turks arsenic acold arsenic Mani, the metropolis was resupplied with nutrient and subject supplies, and the morale of the besieged recovered.
(The siege of Messolonghi)
Meanwhile, reinforcements of Souliots nether Kitsos Tzavelas arrived successful the metropolis (August 7), joining the decimated garrison. At the Turkish camp, though losses were significant, Kütahı, fearing decapitation by the Sultan successful lawsuit of failure, continued the siege. The concern changed when, astatine the extremity of 1825, Ibrahim arrived astatine the force campy with a sizeable unit (over 15,000 Egyptians). Hosref renewed the blockade, but Miaoulis managed to resupply Messolonghi with weapons and food. The unit became unbearable aft the Greek fleet withdrew and Ibrahim’s artillery systematically bombarded Messolonghi (2,000 shells per day). On February 15, the besiegers launched 2 assaults, which, though unsuccessful, caused superior losses connected some sides.
(Ibrahim)
The Turks captured Vasiladi, whose residents fled to Messolonghi, worsening the city’s nutrient crisis. After respective unsuccessful Ottoman operations against Kleisova, Ibrahim sought to exhaust the besieged by cutting disconnected each connection and proviso routes. Despite Miaoulis’ efforts, the blockade could not beryllium lifted, and the garrison was forced to devour dogs, cats, and rats to debar decease by starvation. The unbearable surviving conditions (famine, disease, etc.) and Miaoulis’ inability to scope Messolonghi created a hopeless concern among the besieged, who saw nary different solution but the Exodus.
(“Greece connected the ruins of Messolonghi”, coating by Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix)
Thus, connected the nighttime of April 10, 1826, they organized their forces into 3 units, nether the enactment of Notis Botsaris, Dimitrios Makris, and Kitsos Tzavelas; successful the halfway of the triangle that these forces would form, the women and children were placed. Georgios Karaiskakis, though helium had undertaken to onslaught from the slopes of Zygos, hoping to make a diversion against the besiegers, yet failed to fulfill his promise, arsenic Ibrahim learned of the besieged’s plans from a Bulgarian deserter.
Therefore, erstwhile the monolithic assemblage of Greeks began the Exodus astatine 2 o’clock aft midnight, nether the enactment of Athanasios Razi-Kotsikas, the men of Ibrahim and Kioutachis were prepared, and the ramparts (fortifications) designated arsenic transition points for the Messolonghiots had been blocked. Ibrahim’s abrupt determination caused large disorder connected the Greek side, with the effect that the unequal conflict that followed proved devastating for the Greeks. The vanguard of the Exodus force, however, advanced, crossing the Turkish lines and reaching, greatly reduced successful number, the slopes of Zygos and from determination Amfissa. Those who had remained down were forced to combat successful deadly thoroughfare battles.
Among those who escaped (1,300 fighters and astir 1 100 women and children) were Notis Botsaris, Dimitrios Makris, Kitsos Tzavelas, Christos Fotomaras, Panagiotis Sotiropoulos oregon Kravaritis—one of our favourite heroes of 1821—and others. Among the assemblage that returned and was slaughtered wrong the metropolis were Bishop Joseph of Rogoi (the ecclesiastical person of the besieged), Iakovos Mayer, Michail Kokkinis, and those who resisted alongside Christos Kapsalis successful the pulverization magazines. It is estimated that connected that day—Palm Sunday—2,000 radical were burned alive, different 3,000 were slaughtered by the Turks, and astir 1,000 were taken prisoner. And, arsenic we mentioned recently, Ibrahim, 5 years aboriginal successful 1831, crushed Kioutachis during the Turco-Egyptian war, proving his superiority.
(Marsigli Filippo, “The decease of Markos Botsaris”)
The Exodus of Messolonghi, isolated from the fig of victims, had a affirmative effect connected the people of the Greek War of Independence. In France, Switzerland, Germany, England, and different European countries, demonstrations of sympathy and philhellenism took place. Most of these were directed against the European rulers who had abandoned the revolutionaries without aid, portion others were expressed successful the signifier of proclamations and appeals for much progressive information successful the war. There was also, of course, the work of poems, theatrical works, articles, speeches, fundraising efforts, and different diplomatic actions.
The Battle of Navarino (October 1827)
Of decisive value for the Revolution, successful its last and captious phase, was the Battle of Navarino, which took spot astatine Navarino (Pylos oregon Neokastro) connected October 20, 1827. However, it did not successful immoderate mode resurrect a finished struggle. Many person the content that if the Battle of Navarino had not occurred, Ibrahim would person “ended” the Revolution. This, however, is not true. The Egyptian had by past slowed his beforehand and had been reduced to destroying crops, portion the Maniots had dealt him terrible blows (Vergas, Polyaravos, Diros). Kolokotronis, with “fire and axe,” had reduced acts of submission to a minimum, and connected September 17–18, 1827, astatine the naval conflict of Itea (or Agali), Thomas and Hastings sank galore Turkish ships.
(The Battle of Navarino)
During the aforesaid period, Ibrahim terrorized the inhabitants of the Peloponnese, destroyed villages and crops, portion galore Greeks were captured and taken arsenic slaves to Egypt. There was a wide content among philhellenic circles successful Europe that helium intended to expel each Greeks from the Morea and settee Egyptian Muslims there. At the aforesaid time, Sultan Mahmud II and the politician of Egypt, Mehmet Ali, Ibrahim’s father, planned to onslaught Hydra, which they believed was the main supplier of the revolutionary centers successful Greece.
The accomplishment of the allied fleets successful Greece and the apt inevitable clash with the Turks and Egyptians was intelligibly approaching… An important relation successful favour of the Greeks was played by the ambassadors of the Great Powers successful Constantinople: the Englishman Stratford Canning, relative of George Canning, and Ribopierre (Russian) and Guilleminot (French). These 3 diplomats announced (9/9/1827) to the Turkish officials that they had ordered their admirals to instrumentality a “peaceful blockade.”
The past efforts to debar conflict
On August 5, 1827, the British fleet, nether Codrington, and the French fleet, nether De Rigny, arrived astatine Nafplio, wherever they announced to the Greek authorities the Treaty of London. At the aforesaid time, they requested that the superior of the authorities beryllium moved to Aegina, which so took place.
On September 12, Codrington arrived astatine Navarino, wherever the Turco-Egyptian fleet was stationed, and communicated the contents of the Treaty of London. De Rigny did the aforesaid with Ibrahim, who asked the 2 admirals (the Russian fleet had not yet arrived) for a twenty-day deadline to person caller instructions. An effort by Ibrahim to transport supplies by vessel to Patras failed, arsenic helium was prevented by Codrington. On October 3, 1827, the deadline requested by Ibrahim expired. The 3 allied fleets (the Russian fleet nether Heyden had already arrived) anchored extracurricular Sphacteria. On October 6, a gathering of the 3 admirals took place. All desired to instrumentality action, arsenic they did not privation wintertime to find them astatine Navarino. They besides received a missive from Kolokotronis informing them that Ibrahim’s men were committing genocide successful Messenia. Thus, they sent Colonel Cradock to present an ultimatum to Ibrahim demanding that helium cease each hostile actions successful the Morea. Ibrahim avoided gathering Cradock, and truthful the admirals decided to participate the Bay of Navarino to show the Turco-Egyptian fleet anchored there.
(Codrington, De Rigny and Heyden)
Shortly earlier the conflict – The forces of the opponents
The Turco-Egyptian fleet consisted of 3 ample ships, 24 frigates, and different smaller vessels. In total, 89 ships and 41 transports, of which 8 were Austrian. The Turkish commandant was Tahir Bey, and the Egyptian commanders were Mustafa Bey and Muharrem Bey. The allied unit was overmuch smaller: 12 British ships—specifically “Asia” (flagship), “Genoa,” “Albion,” “Darmouth,” “Cabrian,” “Glasgow,” “Talbot,” “Rose,” “Mosquito,” “Brisk,” “Philomel,” and “Hind”; 8 Russian—“Azov” (flagship), “Ezekiel,” “Cangut,” “Aleksandr,” “Provornoy,” “Elena,” “Konstantin,” and “Kastor”; and 7 French—“Sirene” (flagship), “Scipion,” “Trident,” “Breslaw,” “Armide,” “Daphne,” and “Alcyone.” The wide commandant of the allied forces was Codrington, who held the fertile of Vice Admiral, portion De Rigny and Heyden were Rear Admirals.
The battle
At noon connected October 8/20, the 2 opposing fleets had taken their last positions. The ambiance was highly tense erstwhile an force fireship approached precise adjacent to the vessel “Darmouth,” and its captain, Fellowes, sent a vessel led by Lieutenant Fitzroy and a fewer men to inquire the unit of the fireship to withdraw. The crew, however, killed the lieutenant and respective of his men! Fellowes sent different vessel to region the fireship and ordered the “Darmouth” to instrumentality fire. At the aforesaid time, the French flagship “Sirene” was struck by the Egyptian frigate “Esmina,” and the “Asia” came nether occurrence from the Turkish flagship. Codrington sent a delegation to the Egyptians to pass them that their volition was not to combat them, but to unit them to instrumentality to their bases—the Turks to the Dardanelles and the Egyptians to Alexandria.
(Ivan Aivazovsky, “The Battle of Navarino”)
The Egyptians, without immoderate reason, killed Codrington’s Greek pilot, Petros Mikelis, 1 of the envoys. Petros Mikelis was astir apt the lone Greek killed successful the Battle of Navarino. Immediately, the “Asia” began bombardment against the Egyptian flagship, resulting successful its sinking. Fierce occurrence followed connected some sides. Around 3 p.m., the Russian fleet arrived, which until past had been farther back. Its accomplishment caused enthusiasm among the allied forces. By astir 6 p.m., everything was over. The allies had triumphed! Of the 89 ships of the Turco-Egyptian fleet, 60 had been sunk oregon destroyed, 15 had tally aground successful the shallows of Navarino Bay aft suffering dense damage, and lone 14, nether Ibrahim, escaped unharmed and reached Alexandria 2 months later. The dormant among the Turks and Egyptians are estimated astatine 6,000.
No allied ships were sunk, though some, specified arsenic the “Asia,” suffered greater oregon lesser damage. 272 British, 185 French, and 198 Russians were killed oregon wounded. Paradoxically, though Codrington had fundamentally initiated the battle, helium fell into disfavor. The British did not privation a full-scale clash betwixt the 2 sides, and Codrington—who tried to region himself from what had happened—was recalled to his state (June 4, 1828), though helium attempted done repeated letters to beryllium that helium had not violated immoderate orders. Eventually, his state recognized his contribution, promoted him to Admiral (1839), and awarded him the “Grand Cross of the Bath.”
In Greece, of course, the triumph of the allied fleet implicit Ibrahim was celebrated with large enthusiasm, arsenic it seemed that the hr of state was approaching. The French celebrated the triumph owed to the occurrence of their navy, which had suffered a terrible decision astatine Trafalgar (1805) by Nelson. The Russians, beyond the strategical value of the victory, were peculiarly pleased due to the fact that they proved themselves adjacent sailors to the British and French. The British—especially the blimpish government—received the occurrence astatine Navarino with coldness, arsenic they saw that it opened the mode for Russia into the Mediterranean. Naturally, the Austrians were outraged. Emperor Francis described the conflict arsenic “murder,” and Metternich argued that wide chaos would follow.
(Greek refugees aft the demolition of Chios)
The quality reached Constantinople connected October 29, 1827 (with a ten-day delay…). The archetypal to denote the lawsuit unofficially was Stratford Canning. On November 1, the Sultan learned the unpleasant news. He constricted himself to threats, and nary excesses followed. Mahmud believed that the decision of the Turco-Egyptian fleet astatine Navarino would not person superior consequences—and helium was apt mistaken—while helium knew that immoderate atrocities would provoke warfare with astatine slightest fractional of Europe.
Main sources:
“History of the Greek Nation,” vol. XII, Ekdotiki Athinon
Dionysios Kokkinos, The Greek Revolution, Volume 1, Melissa Publications
Encyclopedias Papyrus–Larousse–Britannica and Domi.
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