572 years since the Fall of Constantinople – The life, reign, and tragic end of Constantine Palaiologos

On the juncture of the 572nd day of the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans, we contiguous the astir caller accusation astir Constantine, based connected the distinguished enactment of the starring Byzantinist and Professor Emeritus of Medieval and Byzantine History astatine the University of Peloponnese, Mr. Alexis G.K. Savvidis, titled “For a New Biographical Dictionary of Byzantium: An Introductory Contribution,” Volume A, Papazisis Editions, 2nd edition, 2024.

Who was Constantine XI Palaiologos?

Constantine XI Palaiologos, the past Palaiologos ruler (the tenth successful succession) and the last defender of the medieval Greek world, was calved successful Constantinople (Byzantium) connected March 12, 1405 (or, according to immoderate sources, February 9, 1404). He was the 4th of six sons of Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos and the Serbian-origin Elena Dragaš, a scion of the salient Serbian household of Dragas.

For this reason, Constantine XI is often referred to arsenic Constantine Palaiologos-Dragaš. His father, Manuel II Palaiologos, reigned from 1391 until 1425. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Constantine’s brother, John VIII Palaiologos, who ruled Byzantium from 1425 to 1448. Constantine was co-emperor with his member successful 1423–1424 and again from 1437–1441.

572 years since the Fall of the City – His life, reign, and tragic end

After a little enactment successful Tauris, Constantine went to the Peloponnese, wherever unneurotic with his younger brothers, Theodore and Thomas, they administered the Despotate of the Morea, completing the reconquest of the Frankokratia-held territories. Their residence and associated regularisation successful the Peloponnese created tensions.

Eventually, Theodore and Thomas took implicit the medication of the Despotate. Constantine traveled to Constantinople to enactment his member John VIII’s efforts. Later, aft 1441, helium returned again to the Peloponnese. However, the stance of Despot Constantine Palaiologos, supported by the Turks, brought him backmost to Constantinople (1442–1443), to bolster John VIII. From 1443 to 1448, helium engaged successful administrative and subject reorganization of the Despotate successful effect to the Turkish threat.

Constantine XI Palaiologos, Emperor of Byzantium

When John VIII died childless successful October 1448, Constantine’s brothers, Theodore and Thomas, opposed his accession to the throne. Their mother’s involution was decisive, and connected January 6, 1449, Constantine was officially crowned “Emperor of the Romans” astatine Hagios Demetrios successful the Morea, past acceptable retired for Constantinople, arriving successful March 1449. No different coronation is recorded successful Hagia Sophia. Theodore and Thomas remained co-emperors astatine Mistra until 1460/61.

The Turks connected the verge of Constantinople

When Constantine ascended the throne, the Ottoman sultan was Murad V. Upon his decease successful February 1451, helium was succeeded by his lad Mehmed II (Mehmed the Conqueror), whose spot was past Edirne. Initially, Constantine XI maintained bully relations with Murad and Mehmed. However, his enactment for Orhan, a rival claimant to the sultanate, strained relations further. From the opening of his reign, Constantine understood that the Turks planned to onslaught and prehend Constantinople.

1452-1453: The siege and autumn of Constantinople

Between April and August 1452, Mehmed II constructed the formidable fortress of Rumeli Hisar connected the European broadside of the Bosporus, other the Anatolian Anadolu Hisar, built earlier by Bayezid I, known arsenic the “Lightning” (1395/1396). According to Chalcondyles, from Rumeli Hisar, Mehmed could wholly power the transition of ships to and from the Byzantine capital, whether via the Euxine (Black Sea) done the Bosporus oregon from the Sea of Marmara (Propontis) to the south.

The tightening Ottoman siege astir Byzantium intensified aft the triumph of Mehmed’s pro-war allies, who yet prevailed implicit much mean factions. The person of these was Grand Vizier Halil Pasha Jandarli. It is recorded that Halil Pasha was bribed by the Byzantines to transportation Mehmed not to onslaught Constantinople.

Today’s Rumeli Hisar

Constantine’s hopeless efforts to fortify the city’s defenses

Faced with these circumstances, Constantine XI attempted to found a humble defense. However, the empire had shrunk to Constantinople, immoderate Aegean islands, and the Despotate of the Morea. He hoped for assistance from his brothers astatine Mistra, but they were attacked by the aging Turahan Bey (who died successful 1456) and his sons Omer and Ahmed Bey.

His attempts to unafraid assistance from Pope Nicholas V (1447–1455) and the West were unsuccessful. Furthermore, the dire economical authorities of the Byzantine Empire, burdened by important debts to Venice, and its debased currency—the poorly produced metallic “stavrat” coins, which were precise anemic compared to the almighty Italian city-state coinages—added to the despair.

Additionally, Constantine, a mean protagonist of ecclesiastical union, aimed to admit the Council of Ferrara-Florence (1438–1439). Yet, connected December 12, 1452, helium boldly led a associated Orthodox and Western liturgy successful Hagia Sophia—an enactment that enraged galore residents of the city. Most preferred the sentiment expressed by the “Great Duke” Loukas Notaras, that helium would alternatively spot a sultan’s fez successful Byzantium than a Latin mitre.

The unequal combat of the fewer defenders of Constantinople against the Turks

The Peloponnesian cardinal Isidore, who had antecedently served arsenic Metropolitan of Russia, on with 2,000 foreigners—including 700 Genoese—led by the susceptible and brave John Longo Justinian, whose wounded whitethorn person been the last stroke to the city, added to the defending forces of 5,000–8,000 Byzantines. Opposing them were tens of thousands of Turks (estimates scope from 100,000 to 400,000 depending connected sources).

Constantine fought heroically surrounded by his officers and soldiers, refusing to surrender. After a 54-day siege (April 2–May 29, 1453), the metropolis fell to the Ottomans. Constantine was killed, apt adjacent the Gate of Saint Romanus. His trusted person and historian, George Sphrantzes, was not contiguous astatine his decease to supply a precise account.

Assessment of Constantine XI Palaiologos

According to Alexis G.K. Savvidis, “the past Palaiologos is among the noblest ruling figures of medieval Hellenism,” though immoderate modern historians question his political, military, and diplomatic abilities. Even the admirer of Mehmed II and chronicler of the fall, Michael Critobulus, influenced by Thucydides, compares Constantine XI’s enactment qualities with those of Pericles, contempt not citing superior sources.

The Byzantines were profoundly shaken by the autumn of Constantinople, which was described arsenic “the communal Greek homeland, the spot of learning, the teacher of each sciences, the metropolis of cities,” according to the “Monody connected the Unfortunate Constantinople,” written during that play by Andronikos Callistus, a humanist student and prof successful Florence.

Why is Constantine XI (and not XI) considered the past Byzantine emperor?

Constantine XI Palaiologos was a fervent protagonist of the revival of the nationalist consciousness of Hellenism, which began to instrumentality signifier aft 1204—the archetypal Latin conquest of Constantinople. Until recently, helium was referred to arsenic Constantine XI (the eleventh), but caller probe indicates helium should beryllium numbered arsenic Constantine XII (the twelfth).

The eleventh is present considered to beryllium Constantine XI (Komnenos-Laskaris), co-founder of the Empire of Nicaea (1204–1205), on with his member Theodore I Laskaris. This presumption was archetypal projected by the renowned Cretan Byzantinist and scholar, Konstantinos Amantos (1874–1960), astir 1956. In caller years, this position has gained acceptance successful some Greek and planetary scholarship.

The “Marmaromenos Vasilias” (The Marble King)

A caller legend

Constantine Palaiologos, arsenic the “Marble King,” passes into the realm of myth

“Among the astir fashionable themes successful these legends (about liberation from Ottoman rule) is that of the ‘Marble King’—a motif communal crossed Greek regions. According to 1 version, an angel appeared astatine the last conflict connected May 29, 1453, to prevention Emperor Constantine, who fought encircled by Turks. The angel took him from the battlefield and hid him successful an underground cave adjacent the Golden Gate, connected the occidental broadside of Constantinople. There helium was said to person remained marbleized (or sleeping) until God sent his angel again. The messenger of God would past aftermath the emperor, instrumentality his sword, and Constantine would look from the cave with his army, entering the metropolis done the Golden Gate, and pursuing the Turks to the Red Apple hill, wherever helium would slaughter them. The fable of the past Divine Liturgy successful Hagia Sophia and the Holy Table was besides widespread.

According to this tradition, the Turks entered Hagia Sophia during the service, conscionable earlier the Divine Communion, and the clergyman vanished wrong the walls of the church. The interrupted liturgy would person concluded erstwhile the Greeks retook the city, astatine which constituent the clergyman would look from his hiding spot to decorativeness the service. Simultaneously, the Holy Table, which sank into the Sea of Marmara, would instrumentality to the church” (Spyridon Vryonis, “The Decline of Medieval Hellenism successful Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization (11th–15th centuries)”, trans. K. Galatariotou [Athens: MIET, 1996, reprint 2000], pp. 388-389).